Romania's participation during the Second World War [part I]
Traian Dumbrăveanu Muresanu House Museum, Brașov
A few days before the outbreak of World War II, on August 23, 1939, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union concluded the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact, which, according to the provisions of the additional protocol (secret annexes), set the destinies of the Baltic countries (Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia), Finland, Poland and Romania. On June 22, 1940 France signed the armistice with Germany, at Compiegne. After the ultimatum issued through the diplomatic notes of 26 and 28 June, 1940, the government of the Soviet Union trespassed Romanian borders, occupying the territories of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina and Herțegovina (that is a territory of 44,500 square kilometers and with a population of 3.2 million inhabitants in Bessarabia, respectively 6,000 square kilometers and a population of 500,000 inhabitants in Northern Bukovina). The territorial breakdown in Romania continued through the Vienna Dictate of August 30, 1940, when Hungary, under the rule of M. Horthy, occupied northeastern Transylvania, namely a territory of 44,492 square kilometers with a population of 2,667,000 inhabitants. By the treaty of September 7, 1940, from Craiova, Bulgaria incorporated the counties of Durostor and Caliacra, with a total area of 6,921 square kilometers and approximately 410,000 inhabitants. On June 22, 1941, Romania entered the war as an ally of Germany against the USSR in order to regain its territory. General Ion Antonescu ordered the army to cross the Prut river and free Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina: "Soldiers, I command you: Cross the Prut river and crush the enemy in the East and in the North. Restore the territory of the country by retrieving the ancient lands of the Bessarabs and the ancient forests of Bukovina, your pastures and fields (...)”. The troops of the two armies (over 450,000 Romanian soldiers), totaling 12 infantry divisions, an armored division and 6 independent brigades, as well as military aviation (672 aircraft, of which 219 bombing and 146 hunting aircraft), were engaged in military operations. Maritime force was also involved (3 destroyers, two submarines and other small vessels). The liberation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina was completed on July 26, 1941, an event that was welcomed by the Romanian public opinion with satisfaction. In 1941, between June 22 and July 1, the Romanian subunits built small bridge ends to the east of the Prut river. These were subject to Soviet forces' retaliation. Several urban centers in the east and south-east of the country, such as Constanța, on June 26, were subjected to Soviet aerial bombardments. As of July 1, the divisions of the 4th Romanian Army secured the German right flank, advancing in the direction of Huşi, Chișinău, Dubăsari. Heavy battles took place in the towns of Epureni and Ţiganca. On July 9, 1941, the large Romanian units fully controlled the entire territory of Northern Bukovina. The last Soviet divisions that were withdrawn from the northern part of Bessarabia beyond the Dniester river were those in the Orhei area (July 15). On July 16, the units of the Armored Division entered the city of Chișinău, continuing to advance towards Tighina. The military offensive started in the south of Bessarabia, where the 5th Army Corps was deployed. Under the threat of being surrounded the Soviet troops began to retreat eastward, to the fortified alignment on the eastern bank of the Dniester River, where the great German and Romanian military units met on July 26. The 3rd Romanian Army was subordinated to the German 11th Army, and the large units of the 4th Romanian Army were placed under Romanian operative leadership maintaining their defense position on the Dniester river and along the sea coast. On August 8, 1941, the large units of the Fourth Romanian Army were ordered to move towards the lower part of the Dniester River - Tiligulski port, with the final goal to reach Odessa. On October 16, 1941, after two months of heavy fighting, the troops of the 4th Romanian Army conquered Odessa. Their losses amounted to 92,545 soldiers: 17,729 dead people, 63,345 wounded and 11,471 missing. Starting with June 15, 1942 and continuing until February 3, 1943 the Romanian military units were gradually involved in the battles in the Caucasus and at Cotul Donului - Stalingrad, where they suffered from severe climatic conditions and resource shortages in anti-tank artillery guns, signals, ammunition, and winter equipment, food and medicine. The Romanian Army took a large material and human toll during these battles: out of 228,072 soldiers the two Army Corps (the IIIrd Army Corps and the IVth Army Corps) totaled on 19 November 1942, only 155,010 soldiers were left.
Romania's participation in the Second World War [part II]
Traian Dumbrăveanu Muresanu House Museum, Brașov
In March 1944, in Cairo, Barbu Știrbei, the representative of the Romanian democratic opposition initiated, with the consent of Ion Antonescu, negotiations with delegates from Great Britain, USA and USSR with a view to breaking up Romania’s relation with the Reich. On March 29, General Maitland Wilson sent Marshal Ion Antonescu a message informing the latter on the willingness of the Soviet government to establish contact with him and requiring him to order the surrender of the Romanian troops on the Eastern Front. The marshal replied that unconditional surrender on behalf of Romania was morally impossible as long as Romania still had significant military forces, and Germany had helped Romania in critical moments. The Romanian-Soviet talks in Stockholm between the official representatives of the two countries were resumed on April 12, 1944. The Soviet government relayed the "minimum" conditions of armistice: the 1940 border, war damages, the return of Transylvania or "most of it" to Romania. The Romanian government rejected the armistice conditions on May 15. On 20 August 1944, the troops of Ukrainian Front 2 led by Marshal Rodion Malinovski began their offensive in the Iaşi-Chişinău direction. Two days later, the Soviets reached the Târgu Neamț-Huşi-Chișinău front line and powerfully penetrated the German-Romanian front from Moldova. That demonstrated our country’s diminishing strength to oppose resistance. General Friessner called for continued resistance on the fortified line Focșani-Nămoloasa-Galaţi, which was generally agreed by the marshal. In the morning of August 23, 1944, the politician Gheorghe Brătianu approached the marshal again to convince him about the need to end the armistice without delay. At midday, Marshal Ion Antonescu had an audience with King Mihai I (1927-1930; 1940-1947), declaring that he was willing to sign the armistice after stabilizing the front and obtaining Hitler's agreement. Under these conditions, at 4:30 pm, King Mihai I ordered the dismissal and arrest of both Marshal Ion Antonescu, the head of state, and of the latter’s main collaborator, Mihai Antonescu, deputy prime minister. At 22.30, in the Proclamation of the king to the country broadcasted by radio stations King Mihai I announced "our breakoff with the alliance of Axis Powers and the immediate end of the war with the United Nations." Starting the very same evening the Romanian Army switched to the anti-fascist fight. Between August 23 and August 28, there were tough fights on Prahova Valley, as well as in the Danube ports, in Dobrogea, Muntenia and Oltenia. The capital city was also the scene of fierce battles between the German forces and the Romanian troops. Vioent battles took place at the Upper War School, Ilfov Prefecture, Rahova Barrier, and in Băneasa and Otopeni forests. As a result of the military operations, 6,700 German soldiers were captured, of which 7 generals and 358 officers. On August 28, Bucharest was liberated by its own forces. The Armistice Convention was signed in Moscow on September 12, 1944. It declared Romania a war-torn country, acknowledged the Soviet annexations of June 28, 1940, and imposed the payment of war damages to the USSR, worth 300 million dollars, to be paid within six years in petroleum products, wood, etc. The Vienna Arbitration was declared void, “Transylvania or most of it” returning to Romania. By the liberation of the cities of Carei and Satu Mare, on October 25, 1944, the liberation of the entire Transylvanian territory was concluded. Out of a total number of over 560,000 soldiers in the Romanian Army 169,822 were killed. The Romanian troops traveled over 1,700 kilometers from the Black Sea to the Bohemian quadrilateral and fought tough battles while crossing 20 mountains, 12 large watercourses and liberating over 3,821 localities, of which 53 big cities. The Romanian soldiers inflicted losses on the enemy, equivalent to 15 divisions. They thus managed to free over 200,000 square km in Romania, Czechoslovakia and Austria from foreign occupation until 12 May 1945. The great powers within the United Nations organization subjected Romania to difficult political, economic and military conditions through the provisions of the Armistice Convention of September 1944 and, later, the Paris Peace Treaty of 1946-1947. These international acts acknowledged the losses suffered by Romania in the east and south-east and recognized, regardless of some doubts expressed by the Anglo-Saxon powers, the return of northeastern Transylvania within Romanian borders in March 1945.
Romania in the Second World War and the context of the alliance with Germany
Ph. D in history Cătălina CREȚU
After the fall of France (in June 1940) Romania lost its ally in the West, which would have provided guarantees in the face of aggression. The Ribentropp-Molotov Pact of August 23, 1939 was known by some political leaders in Bucharest. Under these conditions, King Carol II hoped to be able to save the country's borders and the throne by seeking a closer relationship with Germany. After the territorial surrender of 1940 Romania lost 100,000 square km and about six million inhabitants. Romania had two alternatives according to Prime Minister Mihail Manoilescu: "The alternative I envisaged was the following: we either accept the arbitration today, by midnight the latest, so that tomorrow we can decide (...) or, if we do not accept it, we will be attacked tomorrow and that will be the end of Romania!” Even if the right solution was resistance, the perspective of Romania's disappearance was unacceptable to the Romanian political class. The king required Ion Antonescu to form the government, and on September 6, 1940, the king abdicated. Although the state organization was that of monarchy, the real ruler of the state was Antonescu. Antonescu's new dictatorial regime was joined by the Garda de Fier ("Iron Guard"), an undemocratic and paramilitary organization. On September 14, 1940 Romania became a "national-legionary state". But Antonescu, as a man focused on the rule of law could not accept the legionary assassinations, and thus, with Hitler's agreement, in January 1941 the legionaries were removed from power. On November 23, 1940 Antonescu officially joined the Axis (Germany - Italy - Japan) - countries considered guilty of having started the war. At a meeting between Antonescu and Hitler, the Nazi leader spoke to the head of the Romanian government about the "Barbarossa Plan" of invading the U.R.S.S, but did not mention its date (the meeting took place on June 18, 1941). On June 21, Antonescu received a mobilization telegram from Hitler, and on June 22 Romania entered the war along Nazi Germany. As an ally of Germany (and similarly to Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria, Finland, etc.), Antonescu also engaged in the war against the Soviet Russia. At the beginning of the campaign, the war was supported by the population because it was a war of liberation of the Romanian provinces occupied by the Soviets: Bessarabia, Herzegovina and Northern Bukovina. Marshal Antonescu ordered the continuation of Romanian troops’ participation in war beyond the Dniester. The Antonescu government established the "Civil-military cabinet for Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transnistria", for the administration of these territories. Transnistria was a territory of approximately 40,000 square km that Romania had received from Germany and was administering it as a "government". Amidst the failures on the Eastern Front and the population's dissatisfaction with the deportations from Transnistria, the Romanian political class tried to break the alliance with Nazi Germany. On August 23, 1944 Antonescu was arrested and Romania turned its weapons against the Axis.
Bibliography: POP, I.-A.: „Istoria ilustrată a românilor pentru tineri” ("The illustrated history of Romanians for young people"), Editura Litera, București, 2018. ROBERTS, J.M.: ”Istoria lumii din preistorie până în prezent” ("The history of the world from prehistory to the present"), Editura Polirom, Iași, 2018. ***, „Al Doilea Război Mondial, cel mai mare conflict al istoriei din perspectivă detaliată” ("World War II, the biggest conflict of history from a detailed perspective"), 9-10 / 2019.
Slovenia in WWII On 6th of April 1941, Slovenia, back then the country was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, was invaded by Axis Powers, trisected and completely annexed into Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Hungary. Some villages in the Lower Sava Valley were incorporated in the newly created Nazi puppet Independent State of Croatia. The Germans occupied the Upper Carniola, the Lower Styria, the north-western part of Prekmurje and the northern part of the Lower Carniola. The Italians occupied the Inner Carniola, the majority of the Lower Carniola and Ljubljana, whereas the Hungarians occupied the major part of Prekmurje, which belonged to Hungary prior to WWI.
The Nazis had a plan to ethnically cleanse northern Slovenia, with the exception of north-eastern part that was occupied by Hungary, and they resettled or deported Slovene civil population to the puppet states of Nedić's Serbia and Independent State of Croatia. Hitler was against the fact that the ethnic German Gottscheers lived on Italian occupation zone, so he had them relocated to the Slovenian territory occupied by Germans and about 46.000 Slovenes, that were living there, had to leave their homes and were deported to Saxony in Germany. By the summer 1941, the Nazis started to execute their plan and deported more than 10.000 Slovenes and killed numerous hostages. At first, Italian policy against Slovenians was not as violent as Nazis's. However, after the resistance started in Province of Ljubljana (nowadays territory of Lower Carniola, Inner Carniola and Ljubljana with the surrounding area) the Italian violence matched the violence of Germans. Italians deported 25.000 people to concentration camps, such as Rab, Monigo, Gonars, Renicci d'Anghiari, Chiesanuova, and elsewhere. Because of the Partisans, Italian general Mario Roatta issued a declaration of war on civilians - Italian army adopted the same policies as Germans: executions, hostage-taking, reprisals, internments and burning of houses and villages. He also ordered the installation of a barb wired fence around the city of Ljubljana in order to prevent the communication between the city's underground activists and Partisans in the countryside. Resistance was organized by Slovene Liberation Front (first named Anti-Imperialist Front), established on April 27th 1941 in Ljubljana. Slovene Communists took the initiative, Christian Socialists, the liberal Sokol (Falkon) patriotic gymnastic society members and group of intellectuals were founders of Liberation Front, which military arm were Slovene Partisans. By the spring 1942 Partisans liberated most of the territory of Province of Ljubljana, and Slovene Partisans, who liberated the territory of Slovenia, retained their structure and language until the last few months of WWII, when they merged with Yugoslav Army and ceased to exist as a separate formation.
In the summer of 1942, civil war between Slovenians broke out – on one side there were Slovenian Partisans and on the other White Guard, anti-communist militia, sponsored by Italians, which was later re-organized, under the Nazis, to Slovene Home Guard. In Lower Carniola and Styria, there were also few groups of Slovenian Chetniks existing. Militia was mostly restricted to the Province of Ljubljana, and by 1945 around 17.500 people were involved in militia. After the war around 12.000 members of Slovene Home Guard were killed in Kočevski Rog massacre, and several thousands of anti-communist civilians were killed in the first year after the war. After the war hundreds of ethnic Italians were killed by Yugoslav army and Partisan forces in the Foibe massacres; members of the ethnic German minority and Istrian Italians fled the newly established Socialist Republic of Slovenia, which was a part of Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia. Overall number of WWII casualties in Slovenia is estimated at 97.000, which includes around 15.000 people killed in the aftermath of the war for the reason related to the war.